College Of University

Early Theories of Electromagnetic Propagation

      In  pre-World  War  I  physics, scientists  postulated  a  number  of

    theories  to explain the propagation of electromagnetic energy  through

    the ether.  There were three popular theories present in the literature

    of the late 1800’s and early 1900’s.  They were:

     1. Transmission through or along the Earth,

     2. Propagation as a result of terrestrial resonances,

     3. Coupling to the ionosphere using propagation through

        electrified gases.

      We  shall  concern  our examination at this time to  the  latter  two

    theories  as  they  were both used by Dr. Tesla  at  various  times  to

    explain  his  system of wireless transmission of power.  It  should  be

    noted,   however,  that  the  first  theory  was  supported  by   Fritz

    Lowenstein,  the  first  vice-president  of  the  Institute  of   Radio

    Engineers, a man who had the enviable experience of assisting Dr. Tesla

    during the Colorado Springs experiments of 1899.  Lowenstein  presented

    what  came to be known as the “gliding wave” theory of  electromagnetic

    radiation  and  propagation during a lecture before the  IRE  in  1915.

    (Fig. 1)

      Dr.   Tesla   delivered  lectures  to  the  Franklin   Institute   at

    Philadelphia,  in  February, 1983, and to the National  Electric  Light

    Association  in St. Louis, in March, 1983,  concerning  electromagnetic

    wave propagation.  The theory presented in those lectures proposed that

    the Earth could be considered as a conducting sphere and that it  could

    support  a large electrical charge.  Dr. Tesla proposed to disturb  the

    charge  distribution on the surface of the Earth and record the  period

    of  the resulting oscillations as the charge returned to its  state  of

    equilibrium.  The problem of a single charged sphere had been  analyzed

    at  that time by J.J. Thompson and A.G. Webster in a treatise  entitled

    “The  Spherical Oscillator.”  This was the beginning of an  examination

    of what we may call the science of terrestrial resonances,  culminating

    in  the 1950’s and 60’s with the engineering of VLF radio  systems  and

Š    the research and discoveries of W.O. Schumann and J.R. Waite.

      The  second  method of energy propagation proposed by Dr.  Tesla  was

    that of the propagation of electrical energy through electrified gases.

    Dr.  Tesla experimented with the use of high frequency RF  currents  to

    examine the properties of gases over a wide range of pressures.  It was

    determined  by Dr. Tesla that air under a partial vacuum could  conduct

    high frequency electrical currents as well or better than copper wires.

    If  a transmitter could be elevated to a level where the  air  pressure

    was on the order of 75 to 130 millimeters in pressure and an excitation

    of megavolts was applied, it was theorized that;

     “…the  air will serve as a conductor for the current  produced,  and

    the  latter will be transmitted through the air with, it may  be,  even

    less resistance than through an ordinary copper wire”.2 (Fig. 2)

    Resonating Planet Earth

      Dr. James T. Corum and Kenneth L. Corum, in chapter two of their soon

    to be published book, A Tesla Primer, point out a number of  statements

    made by Dr. Tesla which indicate that he was using resonator fields and

    transmission line modes.

    1.  When  he speaks of tuning his apparatus until  Hertzian  radiations

    have been eliminated, he is referring to using ELF vibrations:  “…the

    Hertzian  effect  has gradually been reduced through  the  lowering  of

    frequency.”3

    2.  “…the  energy received does not diminish with the square  of  the

    distance,  as it should, since the Hertzian radiation propagates  in  a

    hemisphere.”3

    3.  He  apparently detected resonator or standing  wave  modes:  “…my

    discovery  of the wonderful law governing the movement  of  electricity

    through  the globe…the projection of the wavelengths (measured  along

    the  surface)  on the earth’s diameter or axis  of  symmetry…are  all

    equal.”3

    4.  “We are living on a conducting globe surrounded by a thin layer  of

    insulating   air,   above   which  is   a   rarefied   and   conducting

    atmosphere…The  Hertz  waves represent energy which is  radiated  and

    unrecoverable.  The current energy, on the other hand, is preserved and

    can be recovered, theoretically at least, in its entirety.”4

      As  Dr. Corum points out, “The last sentence seems to  indicate  that

    Tesla’s  Colorado Springs experiments could be properly interpreted  as

    characteristic of a wave-guide probe in a cavity resonator.”5  This was

    in fact what led Dr. Tesla to report a measurement which to this day is

    not  understood  and  has led many to erroneously assume  that  he  was

    dealing with faster than light velocities.

    The Controversial Measurement;

    It does not indicate faster than light velocity

      The  mathematical models and experimental data used by  Schumann  and

    Waite  to  describe ELF transmission and propagation  are  complex  and

    beyond  the scope of this paper.  Dr. James F. Corum, Kenneth L.  Corum

    and  Dr.  A-Hamid  Aidinejad  have, however,  in  a  series  of  papers

    presented  at  the  1984  Tesla  Centennial  Symposium  and  the   1986

    International Tesla Symposium, applied the experimental values obtained

    by Dr. Tesla during his Colorado Springs experiments to the models  and

    equations  used  by Schumann and Waite.  The results of  this  exercise

    have  proved that the Earth and the surrounding atmosphere can be  used

    as  a  cavity  resonator for the wireless  transmission  of  electrical

    power. (Fig. 3)

      Dr.  Tesla  reported that .08484 seconds was the time  that  a  pulse

    emitted  from his laboratory took to propagate to the opposite side  of

    the  planet and to return.  From this statement many have assumed  that

Š    his  transmissions  exceeded the speed of light and many  esoteric  and

    fallacious theories and publications have been generated.  As Corum and

    Aidinejad point out, in their 1986 paper, “The Transient Propagation of

    ELF Pulses in the Earth Ionosphere Cavity”, this measurement represents

    the coherence time of the Earth cavity resonator system.  This is  also

    known  to  students of radar systems as a determination  of  the  range

    dependent  parameter.   The  accompanying  diagrams  from  Corum’s  and

    Aidinejad’s paper graphically illustrate the point. (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4)

      We  now turn to a de
scription of the methods to be used to build,  as

    Dr. Tesla did in 1899, a cavity resonator for the wireless transmission

    of electrical power.

    PROJECT TESLA:

    The Wireless Transmission of Electrical Energy Using Schumann Resonance

      It  has been proven that electrical energy can be  propagated  around

    the  world  between  the surface of the Earth  and  the  ionosphere  at

    extreme  low frequencies in what is known as the Schumann Cavity.   The

    Schumann  cavity surrounds the Earth between ground level  and  extends

    upward to a maximum 80 kilometers.  Experiments to date have shown that

    electromagnetic waves of extreme low frequencies in the range of 8  Hz,

    the  fundamental  Schumann Resonance frequency, propagate  with  little

    attenuation around the planet within the Schumann Cavity.

      Knowing  that a resonant cavity can be excited and that power can  be

    delivered to that cavity similar to the methods used in microwave ovens

    for  home use, it should be possible to resonate and deliver power  via

    the  Schumann  Cavity  to  any point on Earth.   This  will  result  in

    practical wireless transmission of electrical power.

    Background

      Although  it was not until 1954-1959 when  experimental  measurements

    were  made of the frequency that is propagated in the  resonant  cavity

    surrounding  the Earth, recent analysis shows that it was Nikola  Tesla

    who,  in 1899, first noticed the existence of stationary waves  in  the

    Schumann cavity.  Tesla’s experimental measurements of the wave  length

    and   frequency   involved   closely   match   Schumann’s   theoretical

    calculations.  Some of these observations were made in 1899 while Tesla

    was   monitoring  the  electromagnetic  radiations  due  to   lightning

    discharges  in  a thunderstorm which passed over his  Colorado  Springs

    laboratory  and  then  moved more than 200 miles  eastward  across  the

    plains.   In  his  Colorado  Springs  Notes,  Tesla  noted  that  these

    stationary waves “… can be produced with an oscillator,” and added in

    parenthesis,  “This is of immense importance.”6  The importance of  his

    observations is due to the support they lend to the prime objective  of

    the Colorado Springs laboratory.  The intent of the experiments and the

    laboratory   Tesla   had  constructed  was  to  prove   that   wireless

    transmission of electrical power was possible.

      Schumann Resonance is analogous to pushing a pendulum.  The intent of

    Project Tesla is to create pulses or electrical disturbances that would

    travel in all directions around the Earth in the thin membrane of  non-

    conductive  air between the ground and the ionosphere.  The  pulses  or

    waves would follow the surface of the Earth in all directions expanding

    outward  to  the  maximum circumference of the  Earth  and  contracting

    inward  until meeting at a point opposite to that of  the  transmitter.

    This  point  is  called the anti-pode.  The traveling  waves  would  be

    reflected  back from the anti-pode to the transmitter to be  reinforced

    and sent out again.

Š

      At  the  time of his measurements Tesla was  experimenting  with  and

    researching  methods  for “…power transmission  and  transmission  of

    intelligible  messages to any point on the globe.”  Although Tesla  was

    not  able to commercially market a system to transmit power around  the

    globe,  modern scientific theory and mathematical calculations  support

    his  contention  that the wireless propagation of electrical  power  is

    possible and a feasible alternative to the extensive and costly grid of

    electrical   transmission  lines  used  today  for   electrical   power

    distribution.

    The Need for a Wireless System of Energy Transmission

      A  great concern has been voiced in recent years over  the  extensive

    use  of energy, the limited supply of resources, and the  pollution  of

    the  environment  from the use of present  energy  conversion  systems.

    Electrical power accounts for much of the energy consumed. Much of this

    power is wasted during transmission from power plant generators to  the

    consumer.   The  resistance  of the wire used in  the  electrical  grid

    distribution  system causes a loss of 26-30% of the  energy  generated.

    This loss implies that our present system of electrical distribution is

    only 70-74% efficient.

      A system of power distribution with little or no loss would  conserve

    energy. It would reduce pollution and expenses resulting from the  need

    to generate power to overcome and compensate for losses in the  present

    grid system.

      The   proposed   project  would  demonstrate  a  method   of   energy

    distribution   calculated  to  be  90-94%  efficient.   An   electrical

    distribution system, based on this method would eliminate the need  for

    an  inefficient, costly, and capital intensive grid of cables,  towers,

    and substations.  The system would reduce the cost of electrical energy

    used  by  the  consumer and rid the landscape  of  wires,  cables,  and

    transmission towers.

      There  are  areas of the world where the need  for  electrical  power

    exists, yet there is no method for delivering power.  Africa is in need

    of power to run pumps to tap into the vast resources of water under the

    Sahara  Desert.   Rural  areas, such as those  in  China,  require  the

    electrical  power necessary to bring them into the 20th century and  to

    equal standing with western nations.

      As  first  proposed by Buckminster Fuller, wireless  transmission  of

    power would enable world wide distribution of off peak demand capacity.

    This  concept  is based on the fact that some nations,  especially  the

    United  States, have the capacity to generate much more power  than  is

    needed.   This situation is accentuated at night.  The greatest  amount

    of  power  used, the peak demand, is during the day.  The  extra  power

    available  during  the night could be sold to the side  of  the  planet

    where it is day time.  Considering the huge capacity of power plants in

    the  United States, this system would provide a saleable product  which

    could do much to aid our balance of payments.

    MARKET ANALYSIS

      Of  the  56  billion  dollars  spent for  research  by  the  the  U.S

    government in 1987, 64% was for military purposes, only 8% was spent on

    energy  related research.  More efficient energy  distribution  systems

    and  sources are needed by both developed and under developed  nations.


    In regards to Project Tesla, the market for wireless power transmission

    systems  is enormous.  It has the potential to become  a  multi-billion

    dollar per year market.

Š

    Market Size

       The increasing demand for electrical energy in industrial nations is

    well  documented.   If we include the demand of  third  world  nations,

    pushed  by  their increasing rate of growth, we could  expect  an  even

    faster rise in the demand for electrical power in the near future.

      In 1971, nine industrialized nations, (with 25 percent of the world’s

    population),  used  690  million kilowatts, 76  percent  of  all  power

    generated.  The rest of the world used only 218 million kilowatts.   By

    comparison,  China  generated  only  17  million  kilowatts  and  India

    generated only 15 million kilowatts (less than two percent each).7   If

    a conservative assumption was made that the three-quarters of the world

    which is only using one-quarter of the current power production were to

    eventually consume as much as the first quarter, then an additional 908

    million kilowatts will be needed.  The demand for electrical power will

    continue to increase with the industrialization of the world.

    Market Projections

    The  Energy  Information  Agency  (EIA),  based  in  Washington,  D.C.,

    reported the 1985 net generation of electric power to be 2,489  billion

    kilowatt hours.  At a conservative sale price of $.04 per kilowatt hour

    that  results in a yearly income of 100 billion dollars.  The EIA  also

    reported  that the 1985 capacity according to generator name plates  to

    be  656,118  million watts.  This would result in a  yearly  output  of

    5,740  billion kilowatt hours at 100% utilization.  What this means  is

    that  we  use only about 40% of the power we can  generate  (an  excess

    capability of 3,251 billion kilowatt hours).

    Allowing for down time and maintenance and the fact that the night time

    off  peak  load is available, it is possible that half  of  the  excess

    power  generation  capability  could be  utilized.   If  1,625  billion

    kilowatt  hours were sold yearly at $.06/kilowatt, income  would  total

    9.7 billion dollars.

    Project Tesla: Objectives

      The  objectives  of  Project Tesla are divided into  three  areas  of

    investigation.

      1. Demonstration that the Schumann Cavity can be resonated with an

         open air, vertical dipole antenna;

      2. Measurement of power insertion losses;

      3. Measurement of power retrieval losses, locally and at a distance.

    Methods

      A  full size, 51 foot diameter, air core, radio frequency  resonating

    coil and a unique 130 foot tower, insulated 30 feet above ground,  have

    been  constructed and are operational at an elevation of  approximately

    11,000 feet.  This system was originally built by Robert Golka in 1973-

    1974 and used until 1982 by the United States Air Force at Wendover AFB

    in  Wendover,  Utah.   The USAF used the coil  for  simulating  natural

    lightning for testing and hardening fighter aircraft.  The system has a

    capacity  of over 600  kilowatts.  The coil, which is the largest  part

    of the system, has already been built, tested, and is operational.

      A location at a high altitude is initially advantageous for  reducing

    atmospheric  losses  which work against an efficient  coupling  to  the

    Schumann  Cavity.  The high frequency, high voltage output of the  coil

    will be half wave rectified using a uniquely designed single  electrode

    X-ray  tube.   The X-ray tube will be used to charge a  130  ft.  tall,

Š    vertical  tower  which  will function to  provide  a  vertical  current

    moment.   The mast is topped by a metal sphere 30 inches  in  diameter.

    X-rays  emitted  from the tube will ionize the atmosphere  between  the

    Tesla  coil and the tower.  This will result in a low  resistance  path

    causing  all  discharges  to  flow  from the  coil  to  the  tower.   A

    circulating  current  of  1,000 amperes in the system  will  create  an

    ionization and corona causing a large virtual electrical capacitance in

    the  medium surrounding the sphere.  The total charge around the  tower

    will  be  in the range of between 200-600  coulombs.   Discharging  the

    tower  7-8  times per second through a fixed or rotary spark  gap  will

    create  electrical  disturbances,  which  will  resonantly  excite  the

    Schumann Cavity, and propagate around the entire Earth.

      The propagated wave front will be reflected from the antipode back to

    the transmitter site.  The reflected wave will be reinforced and  again

    radiated  when  it  returns  to  the  transmitter.   As  a  result,  an

    oscillation will be established and maintained in the Schumann  Cavity.

    The  loss of power in the cavity has been estimated to be about 6%  per

    round trip.  If the same amount of  power is delivered to the cavity on

    each  cycle  of  oscillation of the transmitter, there will  be  a  net

    energy gain which will result in a net voltage, or amplitude  increase.

    This will result in reactive energy storage in the cavity.  As long  as

    energy is delivered to the cavity, the process will continue until  the

    energy  is removed by heating, lightning discharges, or as is  proposed

    by  this  project, loading by tuned circuits at distant  locations  for

    power distribution.

      The resonating cavity field will be detected by stations both in  the

    United  States  and overseas. These will be staffed  by  engineers  and

    scientists who have agreed to participate in the experiment.

      Measurement  of power insertion and retrieval losses will be made  at

    the  transmitter  site and at distant receiving  locations.   Equipment

    constructed especially for measurement of low frequency electromagnetic

    waves  will  be  employed to measure the  effectiveness  of  using  the

    Schumann  Cavity  as  a means of electrical  power  distribution.   The

    detection equipment used by project personnel will consist of a pick up

    coil and industry standard low noise, high gain operational  amplifiers

    and active band pass filters.

      In  addition  to  project detection there will be  a  record  of  the

    experiment recorded by a network of monitoring stations that have  been

    set up specifically to monitor electromagnetic activity in the Schumann

    Cavity. 

    Evaluation Procedure

      The project will be evaluated by an analysis of the data provided  by

    local and distant measurement stations.  The output of the  transmitter


    will produce a 7-8 Hz sine wave as a result of the discharges from  the

    antenna.   The  recordings  made  by  distant  stations  will  be  time

    synchronized  to  ensure  that the data received is  a  result  of  the

    operation of the transmitter.

      Power  insertion  and  retrieval losses will be  analyzed  after  the

    measurements taken during the transmission are recorded.   Attenuation,

    field  strength,  and cavity Q will be calculated using  the  equations

    presented  in  Dr.  Corum’s  papers.  These papers  are  noted  in  the

    references.   If  recorded results indicate power  can  be  efficiently

    coupled  into or transmitted in the Schumann Cavity, a second phase  of

    research involving power reception will be initiated.

    Environmental Considerations

      The  extreme low frequencies (ELF), present in the  environment  have

    several origins.  The time varying magnetic fields produced as a result

    of solar and lunar influences on ionospheric currents are on the  order

    of 30 nanoteslas.  The largest time varying fields are those  generated

    by  solar  activity and thunderstorms.  These magnetic fields  reach  a

    maximum  of  0.5 microteslas (uT)  The magnetic fields  produced  as  a

    result of lightning discharges in the Schumann Cavity peak at 7, 14, 20

    and 26 Hz.  The magnetic flux densities associated with these  resonant

    frequencies   vary  from  0.25  to  3.6  picoteslas.  per  root   hertz

    (pT/Hz1/2).

      Exposure  to  man made sources of ELF can be up to  1  billion  (1000

    million  or  1 x 109) times stronger than that of  naturally  occurring

    fields.   Household appliances operated at 60 Hz can produce fields  as

    high as 2.5 mT.  The field under a 765 kV, 60 Hz power line carrying  1

    amp  per  phase  is  15 uT.  ELF antennae systems  that  are  used  for

    submarine  communication  produce  fields  of  20  uT.   Video  display

    terminals  produce fields of 2 uT, 1,000,000 times the strength of  the

    Schumann Resonance frequencies.9

      Project  Tesla  will use a 150 kw generator to  excite  the  Schumann

    cavity.   Calculations  predict  that the field strength  due  to  this

    excitation at 7.8 Hz will be on the order of 46 picoteslas.

   

Nothing can ruin home ownership more than having a conflict with one of your neighbors. If you’ve ever been unlucky enough to end up in a situation like this, you know that it doesn’t make life easy. Your home should be your castle but if you’re not able to relax you won’t be able to enjoy it. You can start off on the right foot by using the following tips.

1.Be nice but keep your distance

No one wants to be harassed by a nosy neighbor the moment they come home. A friendly hello and wave across the lawn shows that you care without being too intruding into their personal space. As much as you might like to be best friends with whoever is living next door, your neighbor may not want the same thing. Use their response to judge whether or not to take things further.

2.Be respectful of their property especially when it comes to pets

Not everyone is a dog or cat person. If you have pets, it’s very important that you keep your animals off of their lawn. If your animal happens to make a mess on your neighbor’s lawn, be sure to clean it up quickly and try to do better in keeping your pet on your side.

3.Keep your lawn nice

Having the shabbiest lawn on the block is a surefire way to make your neighbors resent you. Poorly kept front lawns can reduce resell value of everyone’s home in the vicinity and it will make you stand out like a sore thumb. Take steps to keep the front of your home in line with everyone else’s.

4.Respect your neighbors’ privacy

Even though you live next door what happens in your neighbors’ yard and in their home is their business. If you can tell they are having a barbecue, don’t invite yourself over. Don’t ask overly personal questions when it is obvious that you are just casual acquaintances. By respecting their privacy, you can be sure that they’ll respect yours as well.

5.Be sure to thank them if they do a favor for you.

If you notice that your neighbor removed a weed from your flower bed or if they brought over mis-delivered mail, be sure to thank them. These small positive interactions can lead to more friendly communication later on. If they do something big for you, like check your mail or water your plants while you are away, thank them with a gift certificate to a local coffee shop or something similar.

6.Look for opportunities to be helpful  

If your neighbor has done something nice for you, look for opportunity to return the favor. Bring in their paper from the sidewalk or offer to feed their dog if they need someone to. As long as you can be helpful without overstepping the lines of privacy, you should take steps to do so.

Of course, your individual situation with your neighbor may differ, but as long as you follow the spirit of these suggestions you’ll be able to maintain a good relationship with your neighbors.

Is Aggressive Behavior Biologically or Environmentally based? By Daena V. De Souza

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The nature versus nurture topic has been an unremitting debate for various aspects of human behavior including aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior is any behavior exhibited verbally or physically with the intention to destroy property or to injure or infuriate another person. There are studies supporting the source of aggression to be innate, indicating links between behavior and biochemical activities, while other studies have considered environmental and societal factors as influences on behavior.

The founder of behaviorism John B. Watson argued that the conditioned response was viewed as the smallest unit of behavior, from which more complicated behavior could be created. Evidence supporting aggression as a learned behavior comes from studies of behavior in experimental and natural settings, social learning theory and the effect of cultural and social variables.

Biological theories propose that aggression may have a chemical, hormonal or genetic component. Scientists have explored various possibilities of behavior. Some of the most compelling evidence comes from genetics, serotonin research and the influence of hormones on aggression.

The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the existing theories and research findings that support both the nativist view and the empiricist view and to reveal the relationship between biology and the environment in determining behavior.

Aggression is learned

2.1 Studies of behavior.

Controlled studies of behavior in experimental settings have demonstrated that aggressive behavior is similar to other operant behavior because it is influenced by rewards and punishment. We can use the example of the rat in the “skinner box” to demonstrate the effect of operant conditioning in experimental settings. When the rat presses the bar, it is rewarded with a food pellet. The food is the reward which reinforces the action that leads to the rat pressing the bar again in order to obtain another reward. This concept can be applied in the natural setting. If you give a child a toy to stop him or her from exhibiting temper tantrums, the toy will reinforce that behavior. Children then learn that aggression can enable them to control resources such as toys and gain parental attention. If after behaving aggressively, a subject receives positive reinforcement, they are likely to repeat the behavior in order to gain more rewards. This is a form of operant conditioning where the positive reinforcement encourages further display of aggression, concluding that aggression is learned through reinforcement.

2.2 Social learning theory.

Bandura, (1977), pioneered the social learning theory which emphasized the role of learning by observation of behavior. Bandura disputed that social imitation rather than Skinner’s model of reinforcement was responsible for aggressive behavior, implying that aggression is imitated rather than learned through conditioning. Research such as the Bobo Doll study (Bandura) has shown that aggression can be learnt through imitation. Children learn aggression by imitating adult actions from live experiences or from viewing violence through the media. Bandura concluded that viewing aggression increases the likelihood of the viewer acting aggressively. By demonstrating aggression one can unknowingly encourage aggression in suggestible children. They can learn that aggressive behavior is common and acceptable and can be used to solve problems, attain needs, influence another person or even make them a hero. The media portray the violent model as a hero who is rewarded. Children by imitation learn how to be violent and this behavior is reinforced by learning the “rewards” of violence.

2.3 Aggression is influenced by cultural and social factors.

Cohen and Nisbett (1994) attributed the existence of regional subcultural differences in aggression in the United States to different local norms for aggressive behavior. Society plays a fundamental role in influencing behavior. Poverty and crime has become an intrinsic part of society; which unfortunately molds the behavior of people through imitation and reinforcement. The residents of a high crime area such as Laventille, Trinidad form a social order where their lifestyle reinforces criminal activity as a means for survival. Members of this society know who the criminals are and do not report them. When residents of these communities commit crimes or aggressive acts such as robberies, their actions are reinforced when they escape the law and obtain positive reinforcement such as material possessions. The children in these communities learn aggression through social imitation. They also become desensitized towards aggression and view it as common and acceptable behavior in their community.

Aggressive behavior can also be a function of national culture. Residents of some countries show a more pervasive tendency to think of violence as means of solving problems than persons living in other nations (Archer & McDaniel, 1995). In some cultures, ones religious view is expressed aggressively with the subject sacrificing his or her life (in some cases risking the lives of others) for the sake of their god. In other cultures, aggressive behavior is influenced by sports. American football, Wrestling, Ice Hockey and Boxing promotes behavior that is intended to physically injure another person. I am by no means diminishing the sport to a mere exhibition of rough play but simply stating that some sports disguise aggressive behavior as part of the art.

Biological Perspectives

3.1 Electrical stimulations

Electrical stimulations and lesion in specific parts of the hypothalamus can influence one’s tendency to behave aggressively (Moyer, 1976). When a cat’s hypothalamus is stimulated using implanted electrodes, the animal hisses and would strike at any object that is placed in its cage. However, electrical stimulation of a different area of the hypothalamus causes the cat to act in a different way. Similarly, a laboratory rat bred in isolation from other rats and has never seen the aggressive behavior of a wild rat can live in harmony with a mouse. However, when the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated, the rat will attack and kill the mouse by using a similar technique that its untamed kin uses. By injecting the rat with a neurochemical blocker in the same area of the hypothalamus that was previously stimulated, the rat then becomes temporarily peaceful. These responses provide proof that animals have an innate aggressive drive that can become active or inactive with the right stimulus.

3.2 Neurotransmitters and behavior.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical that diffuses across the synaptic gap and stimulates the next neuron. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine are three of the most common chemicals found in the brain and are associated with aggressive behavior.

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is produced in the brain from an amino acid tryptophan and is involved in inhibiting impulsive responses to frustration such as aggression. Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) is an enzyme that controls the rate of synthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It can limit the production of serotonin since it is the only catalyst in the reaction producing serotonin. Therefore, serotonergic activity is linked to the deficiency of TPH. Serotonergic activity can be determined by measuring the levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid. Individuals who exhibit abnormal low levels of serotonin are said to suffer from serotonin depletion and were found to be more violent or impulsive than those who had normal serotonergic activity. Studies done by Linnoila and colleagues (1983) have found that men imprisoned for violent crimes have lower levels of serotonin than nonimpulsive violent offenders. Decreased s
erotonergic activity may produce some symptoms such as irrational behavior, anger, and obsessive worry; which can be treated by drugs such as Prozac. Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor that manipulates serotonin levels. It inhibits the reuptake of serotonin into the neurons, enabling serotonin to remain active in the synapse for a longer period of time and therefore controls impulsive behavior.

Dopamine is used to regulate emotion and is also converted to norepinephrine which is affected by stress and moods in the brain. The release of norepinephrine and dopamine can be stimulated by the drugs classified as amphetamine. Prolonged use of amphetamines can result in hallucinations, paranoia and violent behavior. Scientist suggests that schizophrenia results from excess dopamine activity in certain brain regions or as a result from an abnormal sensitivity to dopamine. Evidence supporting this claim comes from the antipsychotic drugs which reduce psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia by blocking brain receptors from dopamine.

3.3 The influence of hormones on aggression.

The male sex hormone testosterone is associated with aggressive behavior in both humans and animals. Testosterone contributes to antisocial behavior in some women especially during the premenstrual period. The imbalance of the estrogen-progesterone ratio during the premenstrual period triggers both physical and psychological impairments such as changes in mood, depression, irritability and aggression. These elevated levels of aggression and irritability is associated with the hormone testosterone. Research has found that a significant number of females imprisoned for aggressive criminal acts were found to have committed their crimes during the premenstrual phase, and female offenders were found to be more irritable and aggressive during this period. Reinisch (1981) found that girls whose mothers were treated with a hormone similar to testosterone while pregnant grow up to be more aggressive than comparable control subjects. Research done by Olweus (1988) has also shown that adolescent boys who have more testosterone behave more aggressively when provoked. To control aggressive behavior in stallions, horse owners usually remove the testes of males that will not be used for breeding. All these studies have provided a link between testosterone and aggressive behavior.

3.4 The frustration-aggression hypothesis

Aggression, according to the drive theory, is created by some innate human need. The frustration-aggression hypothesis assumes that whenever a person is inhibited from reaching their goal an aggressive drive is induced that motivates behavior that causes the person to injure the person or object that is causing the frustration. This basic drive is like behavioral units of ability that are switched on or off as an appropriate challenge or task presents itself. In animals, this drive tells them when to migrate, when and how to court one another, when to feed their young, and so on. Animals like humans know what to do instinctively. For instance, if a person is being attacked by someone, their initial response may be to retaliate; frustration stimulates an inner drive that leads the victims to respond aggressively. This aggressive instinct or drive is what has allowed human beings to survive and protect their interest. Even though aggression is not a guaranteed response to frustration, it is certainly a frequent one. Laboratory studies have shown that animals behave aggressively in response to stressful situations. Caged animals respond aggressively to each other when they are shocked and the behavior then stops when the shocking has ended.

3.5 Psychoanalytic theory

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, asserts that human behavior is motivated by sexual and instinctive drives. When expressions of these instincts are repressed, these urges are displayed as aggression. Examples of expression of aggression are explained by Freud in his studies of childhood aggression and the Oedipal complex. A young boy begins to develop an intense sexual desire for his mother because she is the ultimate provider of love and food. The desire for his mother causes the boy to reject and display aggression toward his father because he views his father as a competitive rival for his mother’s affection. The boy later recognizes his father’s superiority and learns to reject his mother as a love object and eventually identifies with his father. The Oedipal complex relates to childhood aggression in girls. The theory is similar, in which the girl develops penis envy while trying to relate to her father and rejects her mother. The girl eventually realizes that her father is an inappropriate love object and identifies with her mother instead. These examples reveal the idea that aggression is an innate personality characteristic in all humans which is motivated by sexual drives.

3.6 Genetic contributions.

Behavior genetics combines the methods of genetics and psychology to study the inheritance of behavioral characteristics. Genes are the basic unit of heredity that determines the traits of human characteristics ranging from intelligence to height to emotionality. Selective breeding and twin and adoption studies have provided evidence for an association between genetic makeup and behavior. Selective breeding studies the inheritance of particular traits in animals. A study done on the inheritance of learning ability in rats provided evidence that intelligence is hereditary (Thompson, 1954). Rats that did poorly in learning to run the maze were mated with similar dull rats and those that did well (bright rats) were mated with other bright rats. After a few rodent generations, bright and dull strains of rats were produced. It is complicated to perform selective breeding studies on humans; however similarity in biological traits can be shown using twin and adoptive studies. In most studies of twins, the degree of consistency between the criminality of identical twins is approximately twice that of fraternal twins. In adoptive studies most cases reveal that criminality of the biological parent is a better predictor of the child’s criminal involvement than the criminality of the adoptive parents. Research has shown that there is a hereditary predisposition for schizophrenia, since the risk of developing the illness is higher if an individual is genetically related to a schizophrenic person. In all the above studies subjects shared the common characteristic of genes, showing the relationship between non typical traits and genetics.

Links between biological and environmental factors

4.1 The Link between the frustration-aggression hypothesis and social learning

According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration stimulates a drive that leads to aggression. However, frustration is not the only variable that causes aggression. The response to frustration may differ depending on the kind of responses a person has learned to use in coping with frustrating situations. If a person has learnt (through imitation or social learning) that aggression can elicit a desired result, then they would respond to frustration with aggressive behavior. For example, people in poorer communities become frustrated when their physiological needs cannot be met and some are motivated to acquire these needs through crime. This is where social learning plays a role. When a person becomes frustrated they are motivated to react in a way that they learnt would produce results. People can learn that crime pays. Therefore, while frustration and aggression seem to be closely linked, the mere presence of frustration does not seem to suggest aggression, social learning is also an instigating factor.

4.2 The Link between aggressive behavior and people in poor communities

People in poorer communities may exhibit more aggression; not only because of frustration but their monetary limitations may hamper their ability to have proper diets, particularly one high in protein. The link is seroto
nin. Serotonin is produced in the brain from the amino acid tryptophan which is derived from foods high in protein. Tryptophan hydroxylase enzyme is the only catalyst in the reaction producing serotonin and can therefore limit its production. Therefore a person’s diet may control the levels of serotonin that their body produces. People with low serotonin levels are more likely to act aggressively.

4.3 The relationship between genetics and environment

Genetics may influence both development and behavior however, it fully determines neither. Genes are hereditable and are not affected by environment factors such as rearing conditions however rearing conditions can influence gene expression. A person’s genes may predispose them to mental illness, diabetes or aggressive behavior however environmental factors may cause the emergence of these conditions. Someone may carry the gene for diabetes and may never develop it however, obesity increases their risk. There is a hereditary predisposition for schizophrenia and the risk of developing it depends on how closely a person is related to someone with schizophrenia. Conversely, environmental stress can also trigger schizophrenia in a person that is predisposed to the mental illness. Although some children may be biologically inclined to behave aggressively, their behavior can be controlled by the environment. Instead of rearing an aggressive child in an environment that fosters more aggression, it is better to provide an environment that reduces the inclination for the child to act aggressively. Parents who promote hitting as a means of discipline and often quarrel in the presence of their children encourage their children to resolve conflict by using aggression. The probability of aggressive behavior transpiring depends on the situational factors. Sometimes the same stimulation that causes a person to react aggressively to one person may not trigger the same reaction towards someone else. These reactions are controlled by the cortex and are influenced by previous experiences and social influences. Aggressive behavior in monkeys can be induced by electrically stimulating certain areas of the brain. The final behavior depends on the monkey’s position in the hierarchical structure of the monkey colony. Dominant monkeys will exhibit aggres¬sive behavior when electrically stimulated in the presence of a submissive monkey but would suppress the aggressive behavior in the presence of another dominant monkey.

4.0 Freedom of choice

Unlike animals, humans are equipped with a large cerebral cortex that allows for reasoning, consideration, creativity and behavior control. Humans are not hard wired like computers, where given a fixed command or stimulus results in a fixed response. We have the ability to choose our course of action and our decisions are preceded by will and thought. This capability has enabled us to survive and stand greater than animals. Because of our ability to consciously choose the values we instill in our children, our species can influence the outcome of our children’s behavior. Choice is the ability to select from a number of alternatives. When frustrated an individual has the choice to react in a certain manner. They can think about something else, distance themselves, suppress their anger or even laugh it off. The magnificence of human complexity is our ability to choose from an infinite amount of possible reactions.

Conclusion

Is aggression biologically or environmentally based? The answer is simple. Aggression cannot be credited to just one origin. Biological and environmental factors are complementary in understanding the origin of aggression. The traditional phrase for the debate nature versus nurture should be re-phrased as nature being nurtured. A normal person must be provoked and aroused to act aggressively. A person may have a genetic predisposition to aggression but the act would not occur unless certain environmental influences are present. It is best to approach the nature nurture debate from a position that embraces both view points in order to truly understand the basis of aggression. Biology provides the instrument for aggression but environment teaches us how to use them.

REFERENCE LIST



1. MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS

Atkinson, Smith, Bem & Nolen-Hoeksema. Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology (13th edition)

Taylor, Stout, & Green. Biological Science one and two (2nd edition)

2. NO AUTHOR / EDITOR GIVEN

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D’Orban, P.T. & J. Dalton. Violent crime and the menstrual cycle

McCawley, S. The nature of aggression (or is it nurture?)

Silvis, D. Brain-behavior and nature-nurture: Two interacting scientific debates.

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Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003

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Fishbein, D. Biological Perspectives in Criminology. Published Doctoral Dissertation, University of Baltimore, Baltimore.

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Geen, R. The importance of learning in aggression. University of Missouri- Columbia

Rowell Huesmann, L. How biology influences human aggression. University of Michigan.